Individual Task
A
R
R
A
N
G
E
D
BY
Name Filemon S Hulu
NIM 092108035
Class B
Lecturer
Dra.Nursayani Maruao, S.Pd.
INSTITUT KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN
(IKIP) GUNUNGSITOLI 2010/2011
Preface
Thank for our God for his blessing for us, so I able to arranged this individual task, and also for our lecture Dra.Nursayani Maruao, S.Pd. who teach me especially for this Writing subject, I say thank also. And I know to arrange this task I have many mistake, mistype. so, I hopefully for the reader to give suggestion, opinion, and addition, to support this task , to make good for the next task.
And the lasting words, please forgive me if I have mistake, and thank for the reader,
and God bless us.
Gunungsitoli, 25 November 2010
Writer
Filemon Soalisokhi Hulu
TABLE OF THE CONTENT
PREFACE …………………………………………………………………………………. 1
TABLE OF THE CONTENT………...…………………………………………………… 2
DEFINITION OF WRITING AND COMPONENT………..……………..……………. 3
1. DEFINITION OF WRITING…………………………………………………. 3
2. COMPONENT OF WRITING……………………………….………………. 3
WORD CLASSIFICATION………………………………………………………………. 4
1. NOUN………………………………………………………………..…………. 4
2. VERB……………………………………………………………...……………. 5
3. ADJECTIVE……………………………………………………….…………….6
4. ADVERB…………………………………………………………….…………...6
5. PREPOSITION………………………………………………………...………...7
6. CUNUNCTION…………………………………………………………...……...7
PART OF THE SENTENCES……………………………………………………..……...10
EFFECTIVE SENTENCES………………………………………………………..……...13
AGREEMENT………………………………………………………………...……………16
USING MODIFIER………………………………………………………………….……..17
CAPITALIZATION………………………………………………………………...……...18
DEFINITION OF WRITING AND COMPONENT
1. Definition
Writing is the process of inscribing characters on a medium, with the intention of forming words and other larger language constructs. The instrument or instruments used for recording, and the medium on which the recording is done can be almost infinite, and can be done by any instrument capable of making marks on any surface that will accept them. Writing can be done even on a grain of rice, and has been done as well with individual atoms. Most forms of writing are very durable, potentially lasting for centuries, while other forms of writing last only for a few hours or minutes, such as writing in the sand, or writing on a blackboard. Illegal writings are referred to as graffiti.
Writing is also often used to describe the craft of creating a larger work of literature. This is an extension of the original meaning, which would include the act of writing longer texts. (Interestingly, if this is done on a typewriter, the physical act of making the marks on the paper in the typewriter would be called typing, whereas the intellectual activity involved in generating the letters, words and sentences would be called “writing,” and there are similar situations, such as painting letters or words on a canvas or the like, in which the act of painting forms the letters, but the letters themselves are “writing”.) Writing in this sense can refer to the production of fiction, non-fiction, poetry and letters.
Most of time, writing aims to produce works that are target of reading.
2. Components of Writing
Let us look at the vital components of writing:
1. Mental capacity: your expression in the written from originates in your thoughts. It is your mental capacity that is responsible for the thoughts you plan to put on paper.
2. Prewriting: This is the process that helps you find the right words for your expression.
3. Systematic Drafting: After you finish gathering the information about your topic, the next step to draft your write-up. This is process requires the planning and organizing of the gathered facts.
4. Revising: The next important component of the process writing is revising of the draft. Is the phase in which you need to correct the errors in your draft.
5. Editing: The process editing is another important component of writing. When you are satisfied with your writing, you can subject your write-up to the process of editing.
WORD CLASSIFICATION
1. NOUN
A noun is often defined as a word which names a person, place or thing. Here are some examples of nouns: boy, river, friend, Mexico, triangle, day, school, truth, university, idea, John F. Kennedy, movie, aunt, vacation, eye, dream, flag, teacher, class, grammar. John F. Kennedy is a noun because it is the name of a person; Mexico is a noun because it is the name of a place; and boy is a noun because it is the name of a thing.
Some grammar books divide nouns into 2 groups - proper nouns and common nouns. Proper nouns are nouns which begin with a capital letter because it is the name of a specific or particular person place or thing. Some examples of proper nouns are: Mexico, John F. Kennedy, Atlantic Ocean, February, Monday, New York City, Susan, Maple Street, Burger King. If you see a word beginning with a capital letter in in the middle of a sentence, it is probably a proper noun. Most nouns are common nouns and do not begin with a capital letter.
Many nouns have a special plural form if there is more than one. For example, we say one book but two books. Plurals are usually formed by adding an -s (books) or -as (boxes) but some plurals are formed in different ways (child - children, person - people, mouse - mice, and sheep - sheep).
2. VERB
A verb is often defined as a word which shows action or state of being. The verb is the heart of a sentence - every sentence must have a verb. Recognizing the verb is often the most important step in understanding the meaning of a sentence. In the sentence the dog bit the man, bit is the verb and the word which shows the action of the sentence. In the sentence the man is sitting on a chair, even though the action doesn't show much activity, sitting is the verb of the sentence. In the sentence she is a smart girl, there is no action but a state of being expressed by the verb is. The word be is different from other verbs in many ways but can still be thought of as a verb.
Unlike most of the other parts of speech, verbs change their form. Sometimes endings are added (learn - learned) and sometimes the word itself becomes different (teach-taught). The different forms of verbs show different meanings related to such things as tense (past, present, and future), person (first person, second person, third person), number (singular, plural) and voice (active, passive). Verbs are also often accompanied by verb-like words called modals (may, could, should, etc.) and auxiliaries (do, have, will, etc.) To give them different meanings.
One of the most important things about verbs is their relationship to time. Verbs tell if something has already happened, if it will happen later, or if it is happening now. For things happening now, we use the present tense of a verb; for something that has already happened, we use the past tense; and for something that will happen later, we use the future tense. Some examples of verbs in each tense are in the chart below:
Present Past Future
look looked will look
move moved will move
talk talked will talk
Verbs like those in the chart above that form the past tense by adding -d or -ed are called regular verbs. Some of the most common verbs are not regular and the different forms of the verb must be learned. Some examples of such irregular verbs are in the chart below:
Present Past Future
see saw will see
hear heard will hear
speak spoke will speak
The charts above show the simple tenses of the verbs. There are also progressive or continuous forms which show that the action takes place over a period of time, and perfect forms which show completion of the action. These forms will be discussed more in other lessons, but a few examples are given in the chart below:
Present Continuous Present Perfect
is looking has looked
is speaking has spoken
is talking has talked
3. ADJECTIVE
An adjective is often defined as a word which describes or gives more information about a noun or pronoun. Adjectives describe nouns in terms of such qualities as size, color, number, and kind. In the sentence The lazy dog sat on the rug, the word lazy is an adjective which gives more information about the noun dog. We can add more adjectives to describe the dog as well as in the sentence the lazy, old, brown dog sat on the rug. We can also add adjectives to describe the rug as in the sentence the lazy, old, brown dog sat on the beautiful, expensive, new rug. The adjectives do not change the basic meaning or structure of the sentence, but they do give a lot more information about the dog and the rug. As you can see in the example above, when more than one adjective is used, a comma (,) is used between the adjectives.
Usually an adjective comes before the noun that it describes, as in tall man. It can also come after a form of the word beast in the man is tall. More than one adjective can be used in this position in the sentence The man is tall, dark and handsome. In later lessons, you will learn how to make comparisons with adjectives.
Most adjectives do not change form whether the noun it describes is singular or plural. For example we saying tree and big trees, old house and old houses, good time and good times. There are, however, some adjectives that do have different singular and plural forms. The common words this and that have the plural forms these and those. These words are called demonstrative adjectives because demonstrate or point out what is being referred to.
Another common type of adjective is the possessive adjective which shows possession or ownership. The words my dog or my dogs indicate that the dog or dogs belong to me. I would use the plural form our if the dog or dogs belonged to me and other people. The chart below shows the forms of possessive adjectives.
Person*
Singular Plural
1st Person my our
2nd Person your your
3rd Person his/her/its their
*Person’s used here as a grammar word and has these meanings:
1st person or the self (I, me, we),
2nd person or the person spoken to (you)
3rd person or the person spoken about (he, she, him, her, they, them).
2. ADVERB
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much".
While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "lye" suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentence.
In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb:
The seamstress quickly made the mourning clothes.
In this sentence, the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "made" and indicates in what manner (or how fast) the clothing was constructed.
The midwives waited patiently through a long labors.
Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb "waited" and describes the manner in which the midwives waited.
The boldly spoken words would return to haunt the rebel.
In this sentence the adverb "boldly" modifies the adjective "spoken."
We urged him to dial the number more expeditiously.
Here the adverb "more" modifies the adverb "expeditiously."
4. PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word which shows relationships among other words in the sentence. The relationships include direction, place, time, cause, manner and amount. In the sentence she went to the store, to is a preposition which shows direction. In the sentence He came by bus, by is a preposition which shows manner. In the sentence they will be here at three o'clock, at is a preposition which shows time and in the sentence It is under the table, under is a preposition which shows place.
A preposition always goes with a noun or pronoun which is called the object of the preposition. The preposition is almost always before the noun or pronoun and that is why it is called a preposition. The preposition and the object of the preposition together are called a prepositional phrase. The following chart shows the prepositions, objects of the preposition, and prepositional phrases of the sentences above.
Preposition Object of the Preposition Prepositional Phrase
to the store to the store
by bus by bus
at three o'clock at three o'clock
under the table under the table
Prepositional phrases are like idioms and are best learned through listening to and reading as much as possible. Below are some common prepositions of time and place and examples of their use.
Prepositions of time:
at two o'clock
on Wednesday
in an hour, in January; in 1992
for a day
Prepositions of place:
at my house
in New York, in my hand
on the table
near the library
across the street
under the bed
between the books
5. CONJUNCTION
A conjunction is a word that connects other words or groups of words. In the sentence Bob and Dan are friends the conjunction and connect two nouns and in the sentence He will drive or fly, the conjunction or connects two verbs. In the sentence It is early but we can go, the conjunction but connects two groups of words.
Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions which connect two equal parts of a sentence. The most common ones are and, or, but, and so which are used in the following ways:
And is used to join or add words together in the sentence they ate and drank.
Or is used to show choice or possibilities as in the sentence He will be here on Monday or Tuesday.
But is used to show opposite or conflicting ideas as in the sentence She is small but strong.
So is used to show result as in the sentence I was tired so I went to sleep.
Subordinating conjunctions connect two parts of a sentence that are not equal and will be discussed more in another class. For now, you should know some of the more common subordinating conjunctions such as:
After before unless
although if until
as since when
because than while
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. In the sentence Both Jan and Meg are good swimmers, both . . . and are correlative conjunctions. The most common correlative conjunctions are:
Both … and
Either … or
Neither… nor
Not only… but also
6. Interjection
Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written.
Interjections like er and um are also known as "hesitation devices". They are extremely common in English. People use them when they don't know what to say, or to indicate that they are thinking about what to say. You should learn to recognize them when you hear them and realize that they have no real meaning. The table below shows some interjections with examples.
Interjection meaning example
ah expressing pleasure "Ah, that feels good."
expressing realization "Ah, now I understand."
expressing resignation "Ah well, it can't be heped."
expressing surprise "Ah! I've won!"
alas expressing grief or pity "Alas, she's dead now."
dear expressing pity "Oh dear! Does it hurt?"
expressing surprise "Dear me! That's a surprise!"
eh asking for repetition "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today."
expressing enquiry "What do you think of that, eh?"
expressing surprise "Eh! Really?"
inviting agreement "Let's go, eh?"
er expressing hesitation "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."
hello, hullo expressing greeting "Hello John. How are you today?"
expressing surprise "Hello! My car's gone!"
PART OF THE SENTENCES
A sentence is a group of words which starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!). A sentence contains or implies a predicate and a subject.
Sentences contain clauses. Simple sentences have one clause. Compound sentences and complex sentences have two or more clauses. Sentences can contain subjects and objects.
The Parts of a Sentence
Sentence: a group of words that expresses a complete thought. Every sentence contains a subject and a predicate.
1. Subject: the noun or noun phrase that tells whom or what the sentence addresses.
—Roger decided to save more money.
—Almost all cats dislike water.
o Full or complete subject: the subject and all the words that modify it.
—Patrick Henry’s dream of freedom for all citizens compelled him to make his famous declaration.
o Simple subject: the main noun of the complete subject.
—Patrick Henry’s dream of freedom for all citizens compelled him to make his famous declaration.
o Compound subject: a complete subject with multiple simple subjects.
—Miguel and the young boy became friends.
2. Predicate: a verb or verb phrase telling what the subject does or is.
o Full or complete predicate: the verb of the sentence and all the words that modify it.
—The old dog climbs slowly up the stairs.
o Simple predicate: the main verb in the full predicate that indicates the action or state of being of the simple subject.
—The old dog climbs slowly up the stairs.
o Compound predicate: a complete predicate with multiple verbs.
—He thought of his lover and missed her dearly.
—The goose was looking straight ahead and running for the pond.
3. Clause: a part of a sentence that contains its own subject and predicate.
o Independent clause: a clause that could function as its own sentence.
—When the Mets are playing, the stadium is full.
o Dependent clause: a clause that cannot function as its own sentence. A dependent clause relies on an independent clause to complete its meaning.
A dependent clause can function as a noun,
—I realized that I owed Patrick fifty dollars.
as an adverb,
—When the Mets are playing, the stadium is full.
or as an adjective.
—The beef that I ate for dinner made me queasy.
o Elliptical clause: a type of dependent clause with a subject and verb that are implied rather than expressed.
—Though unhappy, she still smiled.
In the clause Though unhappy, the subject and verb she was are implied: Although (she was) unhappy.
4. Phrase: a group of related words without a subject or predicate.
o Noun phrase: a phrase that acts as a noun. A noun phrase can function as a subject,
—The snarling dog strained against its chain.
object,
—He gave her the book of poems.
prepositional object,
—The acrobat fell into the safety net.
gerund phrase,
—Dancing the tango is a popular activity in Argentina.
or infinitive phrase.
—To dream is to be human.
o Adjective phrase: a phrase that modifies nouns or pronouns. Participial phrases and many prepositional phrases are adjective phrases.
—The actor playing Puck left much to be desired.
o Adverb phrase: a phrase that begins with a preposition, and that functions as an adverb.
—The theater was crowded with the actor’s fans.
o Prepositional phrase: a phrase made up of a preposition, its object, and its modifiers.
—The roof of the old theater was leaking badly.
EFFECTIVE SENTENCES
Effective sentences have a quality that enables them to convey an idea with clarity and style. They have a ring to them. They give the reader a sense of what in them is most important. They do all this with a minimum of words.
An effective sentence is like an athlete jumping over a hurdle. As you watch him run toward the hurdle, you have no doubt about where he is going. Every movement of his body is directed toward his goal. There is no wasted action. You admire his gracefulness as he approaches the hurdle and sails over it with apparent ease.
Like an athlete, an effective sentence moves toward a goal, wasting no motion. It focuses on what is important. It has rhythm. In a skillful athlete we admire the unity and clarity of his purpose, the economy, focus, and rhythm of his movement. These are also the qualities of effective sentences.
Clear sentences
1. Unity
Unity in writing means that there is one idea, and that one idea controls everything in that piece of writing, whether it is a sentence or a book. A sentence that contains two unrelated ideas lacks unity. A series of clauses strung together often lacks unity. The effect of such a sentence is like that of a very bad orchestra. All the members are playing some kind of instrument, but they don't seem to be playing the same tune.
Simple, uncomplicated sentences are usually unified. They contain just one clear idea.
The old man was dreaming about lions. The old man and the Sea, Ernest Hemingway
The earth seemed unearthly. "Heart of Darkness," Joseph Conrad
2. Economy
Economy makes your sentences more clear because extra words obscure the basic meaning of the sentence. A short sentence is easier to read than a long one. A writer can achieve greater economy by eliminating deadwood and avoiding wordy structures. Elimination of such structures might be compared to stripping an automobile of unnecessary weight to achieve great fuel economy. Another way to achieve great fuel economy in a care is to get a fuel efficient engine. The same can be done with a sentence.
3. Clarity
Clear sentences come from clear ideas. A clear idea is one that has been carried to its logical conclusion. If someone tries to write before he or she has thought an idea out completely, the sentences are bound to be obscure and cloudy. One cannot put an idea into a sharp, lucid sentence if the idea itself is not sharp and lucid.
One kind of opaque thought is an idea that is perceived in a general but not a specific sense. Ordinary conversation and conventional wisdom are full of examples of this:
Athletic promotes good citizenship.
Older people are more conservative than younger people.
A limp handshake is a sign of a weak character.
4. Coherence
Coherence means sticking together. In writing we stick our ideas together by showing how each sentence relates to the sentences around it. If we do not clearly show the relationship between sentences, our writing will not be clear. Writers use several devices to show the connections between sentences.
Sentences that Flow
Effective sentences flow. They capture the reader's attention. They echo in his mind and brand themselves in his memory. They achieve these effects through sharp images, compelling logic, and musical language. They have variety, emphasis, and rhythm.
A. Verb usage and Pronoun Usage
a. Verb usage
Auxiliary verbs are conjugated depending on the subject of a sentence. Here are a few examples of auxiliary verbs:
Tom has lived in Boston for twenty years.
They didn't come to the party last night.
I was cooking dinner when you telephoned.
What are you doing tomorrow afternoon?
Knowing correct auxiliary verb usage is key to tense usage. Every tense takes an auxiliary form of the verb. There are three exceptions to this rule:
1. Simple present positive: She works at a bank.
2. Simple past positive: He bought a new TV last week.
3. Positive imperative statements: Hurry up!
b. Pronoun usage
Pronouns is a word that takes the place of a noun. pronouns can be in one of three cases subject, Object, or possessive.
As follow:
1) Subject pronouns are used when the pronouns is the subject of the sentence . you can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence
2) Subject Pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. they follow to be verbs such as is, are, was, were, am, and will be
.
3) object pronouns are used everywhere else ( direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition, )object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them.
4) Strong clause can stand on its own
Weak clause begins with words such as although , since, if, when, and because. Weak clauses cannot stand on their own.
5) to decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.
6) possessive pronouns show ownership and never need apostrophes.
possessive pronouns : mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.
7) reflexive pronouns –myself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ourselves, should be used only when they refer back to another words in the sentence.
AGREEMENT
The verb in a sentence agrees with its subject in number. A singular verb is used with a singular subject . A plural verb used with a plural subject.
1. The verb must agree with the subject in number and person. example I am in the room
2. The verb should agree with the real noun
Example: The knowledge of social science is essential
3. Two singular nouns joined by “and” require a plural verb
4. two singular nouns suggesting one ideas or person must be used with a
5. singular verb
6. Nouns joined by “with” or ‘as well as’ must be used with a singular verb
7. Two or more nouns connected by ‘or’ require singular verb
8. Nouns joined by ‘or’ offering in person, the verb must be agree with the nearest.
9. Either/ neither/ each/ everyone/ one/ of + plural noun and the phrase ‘many’ must be used with a singular verb
10. two nouns qualified by ‘each’ or ‘every’ and connected by ‘and’ must be used with a singular verb
11. The word ‘pain’ and ‘mean’ may be used as singular or plural
12. none may used as singular or plural
13. A collective noun treated as a single unit
14. When a proper noun is a plural name, the verb must be singular
15. plural nouns demoting quantity / amount/ distance/ time must be used with a singular verb.
16. When the subject is in the third person and singular number the verb in the present tense takes ‘s’ or ‘es’
17. If the subject is in the third person plural number, the base form of the verb is ised.
18. in the past tense either ‘s’ or ‘es’ is not added.
19. In respect of helping verbs, the third person singular verb is ‘is’ and the third person plural is ‘are’.
USING MODIFIER
In grammar, a modifier (or qualifier) is an optional element in phrase structure or clause structure[1]; the removal of the modifier typically doesn't affect the grammaticality of the construction. Modifiers can be a word, a phrase or an entire clause. Semantically, modifiers describe and provide more accurate definitional meaning for another element
Modifier: a word or phrase that modifies or adds information to other parts of a sentence. Adjectives, adverbs, and many phrases and clauses are modifiers.
o Limiting modifier: a word or phrase that limits the scope or degree of an idea. Words like almost, only, or barely are modifiers.
—It was almost time for dinner.
o Restricting modifier: a phrase or clause that restricts the meaning of what it modifies and is necessary to the idea of its sentence.
—Any dog that has not had its shots should be taken to a veterinarian immediately.
o Nonrestricting modifier: a modifier that adds information but is not necessary to the sentence. Commas, dashes, or parentheses set apart nonrestricting modifiers.
—Seventeenth-century poets, many of whom were also devout Christians, wrote excellent poetry.
—We could hear the singing bird—a wren, perhaps, or a robin—throughout the forest.
CAPITALIZATION
Punctuation marks are symbols that indicate the structure and organization of written language, as well as intonation and pauses to be observed when reading aloud.
Punctuation is the system of symbols (. , ! - : etc) that we use to separate sentences and parts of sentences, and to make their meaning clear. Each symbol is called a "punctuation mark".
These are some common punctuation marks used in English:
• . is a period or full stop.
• , is a comma.
• ? is a question mark or query.
• ! is an exclamation mark.
• ' is an apostrophe.
• " is a quotation mark.
• : is a colon.
• ; is a semicolon.
• ... is an ellipsis.
• - is a hyphen.
In written English, punctuation is vital to disambiguate the meaning of sentences. For example, "woman, without her man, is nothing" and "woman: without her, man is nothing" have greatly different meanings, as do "eats shoots and leaves" and "eats, shoots and leaves". "King Charles walked and talked half an hour after his head was cut off" is alarming; "King Charles walked and talked; half an hour after, his head was cut off", less so. (For English usage, see the articles on specific punctuation marks.)
The rules of punctuation vary with language, location, register and time and are constantly evolving. Certain aspects of punctuation are stylistic and are thus the author's (or editor's) choice. Tachygraphic language forms, such as those used in online chat and text messages, may have wildly different rules.
Reference
1 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing
2http://eslus.com/LESSONS/GRAMMAR/POS/pos1-8.htm
3http://sparkcharts.sparknotes.com/writing/englishgrammar/section1.php
4http://www.myenglishteacher.net/linkingwordsandpronouns.html
5http://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations/AAI9920593/
6http://www.criticalreading.com/sentence_predicate_modifiers.htm
7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punctuation
8http://www.englishclub.com/writing/punctuation.htm
Individual Task
A
R
R
A
N
G
E
D
BY
Name Filemon S Hulu
NIM 092108035
Class B
Lecturer
Dra.Nursayani Maruao, S.Pd.
INSTITUT KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN
(IKIP) GUNUNGSITOLI 2010/2011
Preface
Thank for our God for his blessing for us, so I able to arranged this individual task, and also for our lecture Dra.Nursayani Maruao, S.Pd. who teach me especially for this Writing subject, I say thank also. And I know to arrange this task I have many mistake, mistype. so, I hopefully for the reader to give suggestion, opinion, and addition, to support this task , to make good for the next task.
And the lasting words, please forgive me if I have mistake, and thank for the reader,
and God bless us.
Gunungsitoli, 25 November 2010
Writer
Filemon Soalisokhi Hulu
TABLE OF THE CONTENT
PREFACE …………………………………………………………………………………. 1
TABLE OF THE CONTENT………...…………………………………………………… 2
DEFINITION OF WRITING AND COMPONENT………..……………..……………. 3
1. DEFINITION OF WRITING…………………………………………………. 3
2. COMPONENT OF WRITING……………………………….………………. 3
WORD CLASSIFICATION………………………………………………………………. 4
1. NOUN………………………………………………………………..…………. 4
2. VERB……………………………………………………………...……………. 5
3. ADJECTIVE……………………………………………………….…………….6
4. ADVERB…………………………………………………………….…………...6
5. PREPOSITION………………………………………………………...………...7
6. CUNUNCTION…………………………………………………………...……...7
PART OF THE SENTENCES……………………………………………………..……...10
EFFECTIVE SENTENCES………………………………………………………..……...13
AGREEMENT………………………………………………………………...……………16
USING MODIFIER………………………………………………………………….……..17
CAPITALIZATION………………………………………………………………...……...18
DEFINITION OF WRITING AND COMPONENT
1. Definition
Writing is the process of inscribing characters on a medium, with the intention of forming words and other larger language constructs. The instrument or instruments used for recording, and the medium on which the recording is done can be almost infinite, and can be done by any instrument capable of making marks on any surface that will accept them. Writing can be done even on a grain of rice, and has been done as well with individual atoms. Most forms of writing are very durable, potentially lasting for centuries, while other forms of writing last only for a few hours or minutes, such as writing in the sand, or writing on a blackboard. Illegal writings are referred to as graffiti.
Writing is also often used to describe the craft of creating a larger work of literature. This is an extension of the original meaning, which would include the act of writing longer texts. (Interestingly, if this is done on a typewriter, the physical act of making the marks on the paper in the typewriter would be called typing, whereas the intellectual activity involved in generating the letters, words and sentences would be called “writing,” and there are similar situations, such as painting letters or words on a canvas or the like, in which the act of painting forms the letters, but the letters themselves are “writing”.) Writing in this sense can refer to the production of fiction, non-fiction, poetry and letters.
Most of time, writing aims to produce works that are target of reading.
2. Components of Writing
Let us look at the vital components of writing:
1. Mental capacity: your expression in the written from originates in your thoughts. It is your mental capacity that is responsible for the thoughts you plan to put on paper.
2. Prewriting: This is the process that helps you find the right words for your expression.
3. Systematic Drafting: After you finish gathering the information about your topic, the next step to draft your write-up. This is process requires the planning and organizing of the gathered facts.
4. Revising: The next important component of the process writing is revising of the draft. Is the phase in which you need to correct the errors in your draft.
5. Editing: The process editing is another important component of writing. When you are satisfied with your writing, you can subject your write-up to the process of editing.
WORD CLASSIFICATION
1. NOUN
A noun is often defined as a word which names a person, place or thing. Here are some examples of nouns: boy, river, friend, Mexico, triangle, day, school, truth, university, idea, John F. Kennedy, movie, aunt, vacation, eye, dream, flag, teacher, class, grammar. John F. Kennedy is a noun because it is the name of a person; Mexico is a noun because it is the name of a place; and boy is a noun because it is the name of a thing.
Some grammar books divide nouns into 2 groups - proper nouns and common nouns. Proper nouns are nouns which begin with a capital letter because it is the name of a specific or particular person place or thing. Some examples of proper nouns are: Mexico, John F. Kennedy, Atlantic Ocean, February, Monday, New York City, Susan, Maple Street, Burger King. If you see a word beginning with a capital letter in in the middle of a sentence, it is probably a proper noun. Most nouns are common nouns and do not begin with a capital letter.
Many nouns have a special plural form if there is more than one. For example, we say one book but two books. Plurals are usually formed by adding an -s (books) or -as (boxes) but some plurals are formed in different ways (child - children, person - people, mouse - mice, and sheep - sheep).
2. VERB
A verb is often defined as a word which shows action or state of being. The verb is the heart of a sentence - every sentence must have a verb. Recognizing the verb is often the most important step in understanding the meaning of a sentence. In the sentence the dog bit the man, bit is the verb and the word which shows the action of the sentence. In the sentence the man is sitting on a chair, even though the action doesn't show much activity, sitting is the verb of the sentence. In the sentence she is a smart girl, there is no action but a state of being expressed by the verb is. The word be is different from other verbs in many ways but can still be thought of as a verb.
Unlike most of the other parts of speech, verbs change their form. Sometimes endings are added (learn - learned) and sometimes the word itself becomes different (teach-taught). The different forms of verbs show different meanings related to such things as tense (past, present, and future), person (first person, second person, third person), number (singular, plural) and voice (active, passive). Verbs are also often accompanied by verb-like words called modals (may, could, should, etc.) and auxiliaries (do, have, will, etc.) To give them different meanings.
One of the most important things about verbs is their relationship to time. Verbs tell if something has already happened, if it will happen later, or if it is happening now. For things happening now, we use the present tense of a verb; for something that has already happened, we use the past tense; and for something that will happen later, we use the future tense. Some examples of verbs in each tense are in the chart below:
Present Past Future
look looked will look
move moved will move
talk talked will talk
Verbs like those in the chart above that form the past tense by adding -d or -ed are called regular verbs. Some of the most common verbs are not regular and the different forms of the verb must be learned. Some examples of such irregular verbs are in the chart below:
Present Past Future
see saw will see
hear heard will hear
speak spoke will speak
The charts above show the simple tenses of the verbs. There are also progressive or continuous forms which show that the action takes place over a period of time, and perfect forms which show completion of the action. These forms will be discussed more in other lessons, but a few examples are given in the chart below:
Present Continuous Present Perfect
is looking has looked
is speaking has spoken
is talking has talked
3. ADJECTIVE
An adjective is often defined as a word which describes or gives more information about a noun or pronoun. Adjectives describe nouns in terms of such qualities as size, color, number, and kind. In the sentence The lazy dog sat on the rug, the word lazy is an adjective which gives more information about the noun dog. We can add more adjectives to describe the dog as well as in the sentence the lazy, old, brown dog sat on the rug. We can also add adjectives to describe the rug as in the sentence the lazy, old, brown dog sat on the beautiful, expensive, new rug. The adjectives do not change the basic meaning or structure of the sentence, but they do give a lot more information about the dog and the rug. As you can see in the example above, when more than one adjective is used, a comma (,) is used between the adjectives.
Usually an adjective comes before the noun that it describes, as in tall man. It can also come after a form of the word beast in the man is tall. More than one adjective can be used in this position in the sentence The man is tall, dark and handsome. In later lessons, you will learn how to make comparisons with adjectives.
Most adjectives do not change form whether the noun it describes is singular or plural. For example we saying tree and big trees, old house and old houses, good time and good times. There are, however, some adjectives that do have different singular and plural forms. The common words this and that have the plural forms these and those. These words are called demonstrative adjectives because demonstrate or point out what is being referred to.
Another common type of adjective is the possessive adjective which shows possession or ownership. The words my dog or my dogs indicate that the dog or dogs belong to me. I would use the plural form our if the dog or dogs belonged to me and other people. The chart below shows the forms of possessive adjectives.
Person*
Singular Plural
1st Person my our
2nd Person your your
3rd Person his/her/its their
*Person’s used here as a grammar word and has these meanings:
1st person or the self (I, me, we),
2nd person or the person spoken to (you)
3rd person or the person spoken about (he, she, him, her, they, them).
2. ADVERB
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much".
While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "lye" suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentence.
In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb:
The seamstress quickly made the mourning clothes.
In this sentence, the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "made" and indicates in what manner (or how fast) the clothing was constructed.
The midwives waited patiently through a long labors.
Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb "waited" and describes the manner in which the midwives waited.
The boldly spoken words would return to haunt the rebel.
In this sentence the adverb "boldly" modifies the adjective "spoken."
We urged him to dial the number more expeditiously.
Here the adverb "more" modifies the adverb "expeditiously."
4. PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word which shows relationships among other words in the sentence. The relationships include direction, place, time, cause, manner and amount. In the sentence she went to the store, to is a preposition which shows direction. In the sentence He came by bus, by is a preposition which shows manner. In the sentence they will be here at three o'clock, at is a preposition which shows time and in the sentence It is under the table, under is a preposition which shows place.
A preposition always goes with a noun or pronoun which is called the object of the preposition. The preposition is almost always before the noun or pronoun and that is why it is called a preposition. The preposition and the object of the preposition together are called a prepositional phrase. The following chart shows the prepositions, objects of the preposition, and prepositional phrases of the sentences above.
Preposition Object of the Preposition Prepositional Phrase
to the store to the store
by bus by bus
at three o'clock at three o'clock
under the table under the table
Prepositional phrases are like idioms and are best learned through listening to and reading as much as possible. Below are some common prepositions of time and place and examples of their use.
Prepositions of time:
at two o'clock
on Wednesday
in an hour, in January; in 1992
for a day
Prepositions of place:
at my house
in New York, in my hand
on the table
near the library
across the street
under the bed
between the books
5. CONJUNCTION
A conjunction is a word that connects other words or groups of words. In the sentence Bob and Dan are friends the conjunction and connect two nouns and in the sentence He will drive or fly, the conjunction or connects two verbs. In the sentence It is early but we can go, the conjunction but connects two groups of words.
Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions which connect two equal parts of a sentence. The most common ones are and, or, but, and so which are used in the following ways:
And is used to join or add words together in the sentence they ate and drank.
Or is used to show choice or possibilities as in the sentence He will be here on Monday or Tuesday.
But is used to show opposite or conflicting ideas as in the sentence She is small but strong.
So is used to show result as in the sentence I was tired so I went to sleep.
Subordinating conjunctions connect two parts of a sentence that are not equal and will be discussed more in another class. For now, you should know some of the more common subordinating conjunctions such as:
After before unless
although if until
as since when
because than while
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. In the sentence Both Jan and Meg are good swimmers, both . . . and are correlative conjunctions. The most common correlative conjunctions are:
Both … and
Either … or
Neither… nor
Not only… but also
6. Interjection
Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written.
Interjections like er and um are also known as "hesitation devices". They are extremely common in English. People use them when they don't know what to say, or to indicate that they are thinking about what to say. You should learn to recognize them when you hear them and realize that they have no real meaning. The table below shows some interjections with examples.
Interjection meaning example
ah expressing pleasure "Ah, that feels good."
expressing realization "Ah, now I understand."
expressing resignation "Ah well, it can't be heped."
expressing surprise "Ah! I've won!"
alas expressing grief or pity "Alas, she's dead now."
dear expressing pity "Oh dear! Does it hurt?"
expressing surprise "Dear me! That's a surprise!"
eh asking for repetition "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today."
expressing enquiry "What do you think of that, eh?"
expressing surprise "Eh! Really?"
inviting agreement "Let's go, eh?"
er expressing hesitation "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."
hello, hullo expressing greeting "Hello John. How are you today?"
expressing surprise "Hello! My car's gone!"
PART OF THE SENTENCES
A sentence is a group of words which starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!). A sentence contains or implies a predicate and a subject.
Sentences contain clauses. Simple sentences have one clause. Compound sentences and complex sentences have two or more clauses. Sentences can contain subjects and objects.
The Parts of a Sentence
Sentence: a group of words that expresses a complete thought. Every sentence contains a subject and a predicate.
1. Subject: the noun or noun phrase that tells whom or what the sentence addresses.
—Roger decided to save more money.
—Almost all cats dislike water.
o Full or complete subject: the subject and all the words that modify it.
—Patrick Henry’s dream of freedom for all citizens compelled him to make his famous declaration.
o Simple subject: the main noun of the complete subject.
—Patrick Henry’s dream of freedom for all citizens compelled him to make his famous declaration.
o Compound subject: a complete subject with multiple simple subjects.
—Miguel and the young boy became friends.
2. Predicate: a verb or verb phrase telling what the subject does or is.
o Full or complete predicate: the verb of the sentence and all the words that modify it.
—The old dog climbs slowly up the stairs.
o Simple predicate: the main verb in the full predicate that indicates the action or state of being of the simple subject.
—The old dog climbs slowly up the stairs.
o Compound predicate: a complete predicate with multiple verbs.
—He thought of his lover and missed her dearly.
—The goose was looking straight ahead and running for the pond.
3. Clause: a part of a sentence that contains its own subject and predicate.
o Independent clause: a clause that could function as its own sentence.
—When the Mets are playing, the stadium is full.
o Dependent clause: a clause that cannot function as its own sentence. A dependent clause relies on an independent clause to complete its meaning.
A dependent clause can function as a noun,
—I realized that I owed Patrick fifty dollars.
as an adverb,
—When the Mets are playing, the stadium is full.
or as an adjective.
—The beef that I ate for dinner made me queasy.
o Elliptical clause: a type of dependent clause with a subject and verb that are implied rather than expressed.
—Though unhappy, she still smiled.
In the clause Though unhappy, the subject and verb she was are implied: Although (she was) unhappy.
4. Phrase: a group of related words without a subject or predicate.
o Noun phrase: a phrase that acts as a noun. A noun phrase can function as a subject,
—The snarling dog strained against its chain.
object,
—He gave her the book of poems.
prepositional object,
—The acrobat fell into the safety net.
gerund phrase,
—Dancing the tango is a popular activity in Argentina.
or infinitive phrase.
—To dream is to be human.
o Adjective phrase: a phrase that modifies nouns or pronouns. Participial phrases and many prepositional phrases are adjective phrases.
—The actor playing Puck left much to be desired.
o Adverb phrase: a phrase that begins with a preposition, and that functions as an adverb.
—The theater was crowded with the actor’s fans.
o Prepositional phrase: a phrase made up of a preposition, its object, and its modifiers.
—The roof of the old theater was leaking badly.
EFFECTIVE SENTENCES
Effective sentences have a quality that enables them to convey an idea with clarity and style. They have a ring to them. They give the reader a sense of what in them is most important. They do all this with a minimum of words.
An effective sentence is like an athlete jumping over a hurdle. As you watch him run toward the hurdle, you have no doubt about where he is going. Every movement of his body is directed toward his goal. There is no wasted action. You admire his gracefulness as he approaches the hurdle and sails over it with apparent ease.
Like an athlete, an effective sentence moves toward a goal, wasting no motion. It focuses on what is important. It has rhythm. In a skillful athlete we admire the unity and clarity of his purpose, the economy, focus, and rhythm of his movement. These are also the qualities of effective sentences.
Clear sentences
1. Unity
Unity in writing means that there is one idea, and that one idea controls everything in that piece of writing, whether it is a sentence or a book. A sentence that contains two unrelated ideas lacks unity. A series of clauses strung together often lacks unity. The effect of such a sentence is like that of a very bad orchestra. All the members are playing some kind of instrument, but they don't seem to be playing the same tune.
Simple, uncomplicated sentences are usually unified. They contain just one clear idea.
The old man was dreaming about lions. The old man and the Sea, Ernest Hemingway
The earth seemed unearthly. "Heart of Darkness," Joseph Conrad
2. Economy
Economy makes your sentences more clear because extra words obscure the basic meaning of the sentence. A short sentence is easier to read than a long one. A writer can achieve greater economy by eliminating deadwood and avoiding wordy structures. Elimination of such structures might be compared to stripping an automobile of unnecessary weight to achieve great fuel economy. Another way to achieve great fuel economy in a care is to get a fuel efficient engine. The same can be done with a sentence.
3. Clarity
Clear sentences come from clear ideas. A clear idea is one that has been carried to its logical conclusion. If someone tries to write before he or she has thought an idea out completely, the sentences are bound to be obscure and cloudy. One cannot put an idea into a sharp, lucid sentence if the idea itself is not sharp and lucid.
One kind of opaque thought is an idea that is perceived in a general but not a specific sense. Ordinary conversation and conventional wisdom are full of examples of this:
Athletic promotes good citizenship.
Older people are more conservative than younger people.
A limp handshake is a sign of a weak character.
4. Coherence
Coherence means sticking together. In writing we stick our ideas together by showing how each sentence relates to the sentences around it. If we do not clearly show the relationship between sentences, our writing will not be clear. Writers use several devices to show the connections between sentences.
Sentences that Flow
Effective sentences flow. They capture the reader's attention. They echo in his mind and brand themselves in his memory. They achieve these effects through sharp images, compelling logic, and musical language. They have variety, emphasis, and rhythm.
A. Verb usage and Pronoun Usage
a. Verb usage
Auxiliary verbs are conjugated depending on the subject of a sentence. Here are a few examples of auxiliary verbs:
Tom has lived in Boston for twenty years.
They didn't come to the party last night.
I was cooking dinner when you telephoned.
What are you doing tomorrow afternoon?
Knowing correct auxiliary verb usage is key to tense usage. Every tense takes an auxiliary form of the verb. There are three exceptions to this rule:
1. Simple present positive: She works at a bank.
2. Simple past positive: He bought a new TV last week.
3. Positive imperative statements: Hurry up!
b. Pronoun usage
Pronouns is a word that takes the place of a noun. pronouns can be in one of three cases subject, Object, or possessive.
As follow:
1) Subject pronouns are used when the pronouns is the subject of the sentence . you can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence
2) Subject Pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. they follow to be verbs such as is, are, was, were, am, and will be
.
3) object pronouns are used everywhere else ( direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition, )object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them.
4) Strong clause can stand on its own
Weak clause begins with words such as although , since, if, when, and because. Weak clauses cannot stand on their own.
5) to decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.
6) possessive pronouns show ownership and never need apostrophes.
possessive pronouns : mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.
7) reflexive pronouns –myself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ourselves, should be used only when they refer back to another words in the sentence.
AGREEMENT
The verb in a sentence agrees with its subject in number. A singular verb is used with a singular subject . A plural verb used with a plural subject.
1. The verb must agree with the subject in number and person. example I am in the room
2. The verb should agree with the real noun
Example: The knowledge of social science is essential
3. Two singular nouns joined by “and” require a plural verb
4. two singular nouns suggesting one ideas or person must be used with a
5. singular verb
6. Nouns joined by “with” or ‘as well as’ must be used with a singular verb
7. Two or more nouns connected by ‘or’ require singular verb
8. Nouns joined by ‘or’ offering in person, the verb must be agree with the nearest.
9. Either/ neither/ each/ everyone/ one/ of + plural noun and the phrase ‘many’ must be used with a singular verb
10. two nouns qualified by ‘each’ or ‘every’ and connected by ‘and’ must be used with a singular verb
11. The word ‘pain’ and ‘mean’ may be used as singular or plural
12. none may used as singular or plural
13. A collective noun treated as a single unit
14. When a proper noun is a plural name, the verb must be singular
15. plural nouns demoting quantity / amount/ distance/ time must be used with a singular verb.
16. When the subject is in the third person and singular number the verb in the present tense takes ‘s’ or ‘es’
17. If the subject is in the third person plural number, the base form of the verb is ised.
18. in the past tense either ‘s’ or ‘es’ is not added.
19. In respect of helping verbs, the third person singular verb is ‘is’ and the third person plural is ‘are’.
USING MODIFIER
In grammar, a modifier (or qualifier) is an optional element in phrase structure or clause structure[1]; the removal of the modifier typically doesn't affect the grammaticality of the construction. Modifiers can be a word, a phrase or an entire clause. Semantically, modifiers describe and provide more accurate definitional meaning for another element
Modifier: a word or phrase that modifies or adds information to other parts of a sentence. Adjectives, adverbs, and many phrases and clauses are modifiers.
o Limiting modifier: a word or phrase that limits the scope or degree of an idea. Words like almost, only, or barely are modifiers.
—It was almost time for dinner.
o Restricting modifier: a phrase or clause that restricts the meaning of what it modifies and is necessary to the idea of its sentence.
—Any dog that has not had its shots should be taken to a veterinarian immediately.
o Nonrestricting modifier: a modifier that adds information but is not necessary to the sentence. Commas, dashes, or parentheses set apart nonrestricting modifiers.
—Seventeenth-century poets, many of whom were also devout Christians, wrote excellent poetry.
—We could hear the singing bird—a wren, perhaps, or a robin—throughout the forest.
CAPITALIZATION
Punctuation marks are symbols that indicate the structure and organization of written language, as well as intonation and pauses to be observed when reading aloud.
Punctuation is the system of symbols (. , ! - : etc) that we use to separate sentences and parts of sentences, and to make their meaning clear. Each symbol is called a "punctuation mark".
These are some common punctuation marks used in English:
• . is a period or full stop.
• , is a comma.
• ? is a question mark or query.
• ! is an exclamation mark.
• ' is an apostrophe.
• " is a quotation mark.
• : is a colon.
• ; is a semicolon.
• ... is an ellipsis.
• - is a hyphen.
In written English, punctuation is vital to disambiguate the meaning of sentences. For example, "woman, without her man, is nothing" and "woman: without her, man is nothing" have greatly different meanings, as do "eats shoots and leaves" and "eats, shoots and leaves". "King Charles walked and talked half an hour after his head was cut off" is alarming; "King Charles walked and talked; half an hour after, his head was cut off", less so. (For English usage, see the articles on specific punctuation marks.)
The rules of punctuation vary with language, location, register and time and are constantly evolving. Certain aspects of punctuation are stylistic and are thus the author's (or editor's) choice. Tachygraphic language forms, such as those used in online chat and text messages, may have wildly different rules.
Reference
1 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing
2http://eslus.com/LESSONS/GRAMMAR/POS/pos1-8.htm
3http://sparkcharts.sparknotes.com/writing/englishgrammar/section1.php
4http://www.myenglishteacher.net/linkingwordsandpronouns.html
5http://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations/AAI9920593/
6http://www.criticalreading.com/sentence_predicate_modifiers.htm
7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punctuation
8http://www.englishclub.com/writing/punctuation.htm
Individual Task
A
R
R
A
N
G
E
D
BY
Name Filemon S Hulu
NIM 092108035
Class B
Lecturer
Dra.Nursayani Maruao, S.Pd.
INSTITUT KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN
(IKIP) GUNUNGSITOLI 2010/2011
Preface
Thank for our God for his blessing for us, so I able to arranged this individual task, and also for our lecture Dra.Nursayani Maruao, S.Pd. who teach me especially for this Writing subject, I say thank also. And I know to arrange this task I have many mistake, mistype. so, I hopefully for the reader to give suggestion, opinion, and addition, to support this task , to make good for the next task.
And the lasting words, please forgive me if I have mistake, and thank for the reader,
and God bless us.
Gunungsitoli, 25 November 2010
Writer
Filemon Soalisokhi Hulu
TABLE OF THE CONTENT
PREFACE …………………………………………………………………………………. 1
TABLE OF THE CONTENT………...…………………………………………………… 2
DEFINITION OF WRITING AND COMPONENT………..……………..……………. 3
1. DEFINITION OF WRITING…………………………………………………. 3
2. COMPONENT OF WRITING……………………………….………………. 3
WORD CLASSIFICATION………………………………………………………………. 4
1. NOUN………………………………………………………………..…………. 4
2. VERB……………………………………………………………...……………. 5
3. ADJECTIVE……………………………………………………….…………….6
4. ADVERB…………………………………………………………….…………...6
5. PREPOSITION………………………………………………………...………...7
6. CUNUNCTION…………………………………………………………...……...7
PART OF THE SENTENCES……………………………………………………..……...10
EFFECTIVE SENTENCES………………………………………………………..……...13
AGREEMENT………………………………………………………………...……………16
USING MODIFIER………………………………………………………………….……..17
CAPITALIZATION………………………………………………………………...……...18
DEFINITION OF WRITING AND COMPONENT
1. Definition
Writing is the process of inscribing characters on a medium, with the intention of forming words and other larger language constructs. The instrument or instruments used for recording, and the medium on which the recording is done can be almost infinite, and can be done by any instrument capable of making marks on any surface that will accept them. Writing can be done even on a grain of rice, and has been done as well with individual atoms. Most forms of writing are very durable, potentially lasting for centuries, while other forms of writing last only for a few hours or minutes, such as writing in the sand, or writing on a blackboard. Illegal writings are referred to as graffiti.
Writing is also often used to describe the craft of creating a larger work of literature. This is an extension of the original meaning, which would include the act of writing longer texts. (Interestingly, if this is done on a typewriter, the physical act of making the marks on the paper in the typewriter would be called typing, whereas the intellectual activity involved in generating the letters, words and sentences would be called “writing,” and there are similar situations, such as painting letters or words on a canvas or the like, in which the act of painting forms the letters, but the letters themselves are “writing”.) Writing in this sense can refer to the production of fiction, non-fiction, poetry and letters.
Most of time, writing aims to produce works that are target of reading.
2. Components of Writing
Let us look at the vital components of writing:
1. Mental capacity: your expression in the written from originates in your thoughts. It is your mental capacity that is responsible for the thoughts you plan to put on paper.
2. Prewriting: This is the process that helps you find the right words for your expression.
3. Systematic Drafting: After you finish gathering the information about your topic, the next step to draft your write-up. This is process requires the planning and organizing of the gathered facts.
4. Revising: The next important component of the process writing is revising of the draft. Is the phase in which you need to correct the errors in your draft.
5. Editing: The process editing is another important component of writing. When you are satisfied with your writing, you can subject your write-up to the process of editing.
WORD CLASSIFICATION
1. NOUN
A noun is often defined as a word which names a person, place or thing. Here are some examples of nouns: boy, river, friend, Mexico, triangle, day, school, truth, university, idea, John F. Kennedy, movie, aunt, vacation, eye, dream, flag, teacher, class, grammar. John F. Kennedy is a noun because it is the name of a person; Mexico is a noun because it is the name of a place; and boy is a noun because it is the name of a thing.
Some grammar books divide nouns into 2 groups - proper nouns and common nouns. Proper nouns are nouns which begin with a capital letter because it is the name of a specific or particular person place or thing. Some examples of proper nouns are: Mexico, John F. Kennedy, Atlantic Ocean, February, Monday, New York City, Susan, Maple Street, Burger King. If you see a word beginning with a capital letter in in the middle of a sentence, it is probably a proper noun. Most nouns are common nouns and do not begin with a capital letter.
Many nouns have a special plural form if there is more than one. For example, we say one book but two books. Plurals are usually formed by adding an -s (books) or -as (boxes) but some plurals are formed in different ways (child - children, person - people, mouse - mice, and sheep - sheep).
2. VERB
A verb is often defined as a word which shows action or state of being. The verb is the heart of a sentence - every sentence must have a verb. Recognizing the verb is often the most important step in understanding the meaning of a sentence. In the sentence the dog bit the man, bit is the verb and the word which shows the action of the sentence. In the sentence the man is sitting on a chair, even though the action doesn't show much activity, sitting is the verb of the sentence. In the sentence she is a smart girl, there is no action but a state of being expressed by the verb is. The word be is different from other verbs in many ways but can still be thought of as a verb.
Unlike most of the other parts of speech, verbs change their form. Sometimes endings are added (learn - learned) and sometimes the word itself becomes different (teach-taught). The different forms of verbs show different meanings related to such things as tense (past, present, and future), person (first person, second person, third person), number (singular, plural) and voice (active, passive). Verbs are also often accompanied by verb-like words called modals (may, could, should, etc.) and auxiliaries (do, have, will, etc.) To give them different meanings.
One of the most important things about verbs is their relationship to time. Verbs tell if something has already happened, if it will happen later, or if it is happening now. For things happening now, we use the present tense of a verb; for something that has already happened, we use the past tense; and for something that will happen later, we use the future tense. Some examples of verbs in each tense are in the chart below:
Present Past Future
look looked will look
move moved will move
talk talked will talk
Verbs like those in the chart above that form the past tense by adding -d or -ed are called regular verbs. Some of the most common verbs are not regular and the different forms of the verb must be learned. Some examples of such irregular verbs are in the chart below:
Present Past Future
see saw will see
hear heard will hear
speak spoke will speak
The charts above show the simple tenses of the verbs. There are also progressive or continuous forms which show that the action takes place over a period of time, and perfect forms which show completion of the action. These forms will be discussed more in other lessons, but a few examples are given in the chart below:
Present Continuous Present Perfect
is looking has looked
is speaking has spoken
is talking has talked
3. ADJECTIVE
An adjective is often defined as a word which describes or gives more information about a noun or pronoun. Adjectives describe nouns in terms of such qualities as size, color, number, and kind. In the sentence The lazy dog sat on the rug, the word lazy is an adjective which gives more information about the noun dog. We can add more adjectives to describe the dog as well as in the sentence the lazy, old, brown dog sat on the rug. We can also add adjectives to describe the rug as in the sentence the lazy, old, brown dog sat on the beautiful, expensive, new rug. The adjectives do not change the basic meaning or structure of the sentence, but they do give a lot more information about the dog and the rug. As you can see in the example above, when more than one adjective is used, a comma (,) is used between the adjectives.
Usually an adjective comes before the noun that it describes, as in tall man. It can also come after a form of the word beast in the man is tall. More than one adjective can be used in this position in the sentence The man is tall, dark and handsome. In later lessons, you will learn how to make comparisons with adjectives.
Most adjectives do not change form whether the noun it describes is singular or plural. For example we saying tree and big trees, old house and old houses, good time and good times. There are, however, some adjectives that do have different singular and plural forms. The common words this and that have the plural forms these and those. These words are called demonstrative adjectives because demonstrate or point out what is being referred to.
Another common type of adjective is the possessive adjective which shows possession or ownership. The words my dog or my dogs indicate that the dog or dogs belong to me. I would use the plural form our if the dog or dogs belonged to me and other people. The chart below shows the forms of possessive adjectives.
Person*
Singular Plural
1st Person my our
2nd Person your your
3rd Person his/her/its their
*Person’s used here as a grammar word and has these meanings:
1st person or the self (I, me, we),
2nd person or the person spoken to (you)
3rd person or the person spoken about (he, she, him, her, they, them).
2. ADVERB
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much".
While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "lye" suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentence.
In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb:
The seamstress quickly made the mourning clothes.
In this sentence, the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "made" and indicates in what manner (or how fast) the clothing was constructed.
The midwives waited patiently through a long labors.
Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb "waited" and describes the manner in which the midwives waited.
The boldly spoken words would return to haunt the rebel.
In this sentence the adverb "boldly" modifies the adjective "spoken."
We urged him to dial the number more expeditiously.
Here the adverb "more" modifies the adverb "expeditiously."
4. PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word which shows relationships among other words in the sentence. The relationships include direction, place, time, cause, manner and amount. In the sentence she went to the store, to is a preposition which shows direction. In the sentence He came by bus, by is a preposition which shows manner. In the sentence they will be here at three o'clock, at is a preposition which shows time and in the sentence It is under the table, under is a preposition which shows place.
A preposition always goes with a noun or pronoun which is called the object of the preposition. The preposition is almost always before the noun or pronoun and that is why it is called a preposition. The preposition and the object of the preposition together are called a prepositional phrase. The following chart shows the prepositions, objects of the preposition, and prepositional phrases of the sentences above.
Preposition Object of the Preposition Prepositional Phrase
to the store to the store
by bus by bus
at three o'clock at three o'clock
under the table under the table
Prepositional phrases are like idioms and are best learned through listening to and reading as much as possible. Below are some common prepositions of time and place and examples of their use.
Prepositions of time:
at two o'clock
on Wednesday
in an hour, in January; in 1992
for a day
Prepositions of place:
at my house
in New York, in my hand
on the table
near the library
across the street
under the bed
between the books
5. CONJUNCTION
A conjunction is a word that connects other words or groups of words. In the sentence Bob and Dan are friends the conjunction and connect two nouns and in the sentence He will drive or fly, the conjunction or connects two verbs. In the sentence It is early but we can go, the conjunction but connects two groups of words.
Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions which connect two equal parts of a sentence. The most common ones are and, or, but, and so which are used in the following ways:
And is used to join or add words together in the sentence they ate and drank.
Or is used to show choice or possibilities as in the sentence He will be here on Monday or Tuesday.
But is used to show opposite or conflicting ideas as in the sentence She is small but strong.
So is used to show result as in the sentence I was tired so I went to sleep.
Subordinating conjunctions connect two parts of a sentence that are not equal and will be discussed more in another class. For now, you should know some of the more common subordinating conjunctions such as:
After before unless
although if until
as since when
because than while
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. In the sentence Both Jan and Meg are good swimmers, both . . . and are correlative conjunctions. The most common correlative conjunctions are:
Both … and
Either … or
Neither… nor
Not only… but also
6. Interjection
Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written.
Interjections like er and um are also known as "hesitation devices". They are extremely common in English. People use them when they don't know what to say, or to indicate that they are thinking about what to say. You should learn to recognize them when you hear them and realize that they have no real meaning. The table below shows some interjections with examples.
Interjection meaning example
ah expressing pleasure "Ah, that feels good."
expressing realization "Ah, now I understand."
expressing resignation "Ah well, it can't be heped."
expressing surprise "Ah! I've won!"
alas expressing grief or pity "Alas, she's dead now."
dear expressing pity "Oh dear! Does it hurt?"
expressing surprise "Dear me! That's a surprise!"
eh asking for repetition "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today."
expressing enquiry "What do you think of that, eh?"
expressing surprise "Eh! Really?"
inviting agreement "Let's go, eh?"
er expressing hesitation "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."
hello, hullo expressing greeting "Hello John. How are you today?"
expressing surprise "Hello! My car's gone!"
PART OF THE SENTENCES
A sentence is a group of words which starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!). A sentence contains or implies a predicate and a subject.
Sentences contain clauses. Simple sentences have one clause. Compound sentences and complex sentences have two or more clauses. Sentences can contain subjects and objects.
The Parts of a Sentence
Sentence: a group of words that expresses a complete thought. Every sentence contains a subject and a predicate.
1. Subject: the noun or noun phrase that tells whom or what the sentence addresses.
—Roger decided to save more money.
—Almost all cats dislike water.
o Full or complete subject: the subject and all the words that modify it.
—Patrick Henry’s dream of freedom for all citizens compelled him to make his famous declaration.
o Simple subject: the main noun of the complete subject.
—Patrick Henry’s dream of freedom for all citizens compelled him to make his famous declaration.
o Compound subject: a complete subject with multiple simple subjects.
—Miguel and the young boy became friends.
2. Predicate: a verb or verb phrase telling what the subject does or is.
o Full or complete predicate: the verb of the sentence and all the words that modify it.
—The old dog climbs slowly up the stairs.
o Simple predicate: the main verb in the full predicate that indicates the action or state of being of the simple subject.
—The old dog climbs slowly up the stairs.
o Compound predicate: a complete predicate with multiple verbs.
—He thought of his lover and missed her dearly.
—The goose was looking straight ahead and running for the pond.
3. Clause: a part of a sentence that contains its own subject and predicate.
o Independent clause: a clause that could function as its own sentence.
—When the Mets are playing, the stadium is full.
o Dependent clause: a clause that cannot function as its own sentence. A dependent clause relies on an independent clause to complete its meaning.
A dependent clause can function as a noun,
—I realized that I owed Patrick fifty dollars.
as an adverb,
—When the Mets are playing, the stadium is full.
or as an adjective.
—The beef that I ate for dinner made me queasy.
o Elliptical clause: a type of dependent clause with a subject and verb that are implied rather than expressed.
—Though unhappy, she still smiled.
In the clause Though unhappy, the subject and verb she was are implied: Although (she was) unhappy.
4. Phrase: a group of related words without a subject or predicate.
o Noun phrase: a phrase that acts as a noun. A noun phrase can function as a subject,
—The snarling dog strained against its chain.
object,
—He gave her the book of poems.
prepositional object,
—The acrobat fell into the safety net.
gerund phrase,
—Dancing the tango is a popular activity in Argentina.
or infinitive phrase.
—To dream is to be human.
o Adjective phrase: a phrase that modifies nouns or pronouns. Participial phrases and many prepositional phrases are adjective phrases.
—The actor playing Puck left much to be desired.
o Adverb phrase: a phrase that begins with a preposition, and that functions as an adverb.
—The theater was crowded with the actor’s fans.
o Prepositional phrase: a phrase made up of a preposition, its object, and its modifiers.
—The roof of the old theater was leaking badly.
EFFECTIVE SENTENCES
Effective sentences have a quality that enables them to convey an idea with clarity and style. They have a ring to them. They give the reader a sense of what in them is most important. They do all this with a minimum of words.
An effective sentence is like an athlete jumping over a hurdle. As you watch him run toward the hurdle, you have no doubt about where he is going. Every movement of his body is directed toward his goal. There is no wasted action. You admire his gracefulness as he approaches the hurdle and sails over it with apparent ease.
Like an athlete, an effective sentence moves toward a goal, wasting no motion. It focuses on what is important. It has rhythm. In a skillful athlete we admire the unity and clarity of his purpose, the economy, focus, and rhythm of his movement. These are also the qualities of effective sentences.
Clear sentences
1. Unity
Unity in writing means that there is one idea, and that one idea controls everything in that piece of writing, whether it is a sentence or a book. A sentence that contains two unrelated ideas lacks unity. A series of clauses strung together often lacks unity. The effect of such a sentence is like that of a very bad orchestra. All the members are playing some kind of instrument, but they don't seem to be playing the same tune.
Simple, uncomplicated sentences are usually unified. They contain just one clear idea.
The old man was dreaming about lions. The old man and the Sea, Ernest Hemingway
The earth seemed unearthly. "Heart of Darkness," Joseph Conrad
2. Economy
Economy makes your sentences more clear because extra words obscure the basic meaning of the sentence. A short sentence is easier to read than a long one. A writer can achieve greater economy by eliminating deadwood and avoiding wordy structures. Elimination of such structures might be compared to stripping an automobile of unnecessary weight to achieve great fuel economy. Another way to achieve great fuel economy in a care is to get a fuel efficient engine. The same can be done with a sentence.
3. Clarity
Clear sentences come from clear ideas. A clear idea is one that has been carried to its logical conclusion. If someone tries to write before he or she has thought an idea out completely, the sentences are bound to be obscure and cloudy. One cannot put an idea into a sharp, lucid sentence if the idea itself is not sharp and lucid.
One kind of opaque thought is an idea that is perceived in a general but not a specific sense. Ordinary conversation and conventional wisdom are full of examples of this:
Athletic promotes good citizenship.
Older people are more conservative than younger people.
A limp handshake is a sign of a weak character.
4. Coherence
Coherence means sticking together. In writing we stick our ideas together by showing how each sentence relates to the sentences around it. If we do not clearly show the relationship between sentences, our writing will not be clear. Writers use several devices to show the connections between sentences.
Sentences that Flow
Effective sentences flow. They capture the reader's attention. They echo in his mind and brand themselves in his memory. They achieve these effects through sharp images, compelling logic, and musical language. They have variety, emphasis, and rhythm.
A. Verb usage and Pronoun Usage
a. Verb usage
Auxiliary verbs are conjugated depending on the subject of a sentence. Here are a few examples of auxiliary verbs:
Tom has lived in Boston for twenty years.
They didn't come to the party last night.
I was cooking dinner when you telephoned.
What are you doing tomorrow afternoon?
Knowing correct auxiliary verb usage is key to tense usage. Every tense takes an auxiliary form of the verb. There are three exceptions to this rule:
1. Simple present positive: She works at a bank.
2. Simple past positive: He bought a new TV last week.
3. Positive imperative statements: Hurry up!
b. Pronoun usage
Pronouns is a word that takes the place of a noun. pronouns can be in one of three cases subject, Object, or possessive.
As follow:
1) Subject pronouns are used when the pronouns is the subject of the sentence . you can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence
2) Subject Pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. they follow to be verbs such as is, are, was, were, am, and will be
.
3) object pronouns are used everywhere else ( direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition, )object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them.
4) Strong clause can stand on its own
Weak clause begins with words such as although , since, if, when, and because. Weak clauses cannot stand on their own.
5) to decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.
6) possessive pronouns show ownership and never need apostrophes.
possessive pronouns : mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.
7) reflexive pronouns –myself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ourselves, should be used only when they refer back to another words in the sentence.
AGREEMENT
The verb in a sentence agrees with its subject in number. A singular verb is used with a singular subject . A plural verb used with a plural subject.
1. The verb must agree with the subject in number and person. example I am in the room
2. The verb should agree with the real noun
Example: The knowledge of social science is essential
3. Two singular nouns joined by “and” require a plural verb
4. two singular nouns suggesting one ideas or person must be used with a
5. singular verb
6. Nouns joined by “with” or ‘as well as’ must be used with a singular verb
7. Two or more nouns connected by ‘or’ require singular verb
8. Nouns joined by ‘or’ offering in person, the verb must be agree with the nearest.
9. Either/ neither/ each/ everyone/ one/ of + plural noun and the phrase ‘many’ must be used with a singular verb
10. two nouns qualified by ‘each’ or ‘every’ and connected by ‘and’ must be used with a singular verb
11. The word ‘pain’ and ‘mean’ may be used as singular or plural
12. none may used as singular or plural
13. A collective noun treated as a single unit
14. When a proper noun is a plural name, the verb must be singular
15. plural nouns demoting quantity / amount/ distance/ time must be used with a singular verb.
16. When the subject is in the third person and singular number the verb in the present tense takes ‘s’ or ‘es’
17. If the subject is in the third person plural number, the base form of the verb is ised.
18. in the past tense either ‘s’ or ‘es’ is not added.
19. In respect of helping verbs, the third person singular verb is ‘is’ and the third person plural is ‘are’.
USING MODIFIER
In grammar, a modifier (or qualifier) is an optional element in phrase structure or clause structure[1]; the removal of the modifier typically doesn't affect the grammaticality of the construction. Modifiers can be a word, a phrase or an entire clause. Semantically, modifiers describe and provide more accurate definitional meaning for another element
Modifier: a word or phrase that modifies or adds information to other parts of a sentence. Adjectives, adverbs, and many phrases and clauses are modifiers.
o Limiting modifier: a word or phrase that limits the scope or degree of an idea. Words like almost, only, or barely are modifiers.
—It was almost time for dinner.
o Restricting modifier: a phrase or clause that restricts the meaning of what it modifies and is necessary to the idea of its sentence.
—Any dog that has not had its shots should be taken to a veterinarian immediately.
o Nonrestricting modifier: a modifier that adds information but is not necessary to the sentence. Commas, dashes, or parentheses set apart nonrestricting modifiers.
—Seventeenth-century poets, many of whom were also devout Christians, wrote excellent poetry.
—We could hear the singing bird—a wren, perhaps, or a robin—throughout the forest.
CAPITALIZATION
Punctuation marks are symbols that indicate the structure and organization of written language, as well as intonation and pauses to be observed when reading aloud.
Punctuation is the system of symbols (. , ! - : etc) that we use to separate sentences and parts of sentences, and to make their meaning clear. Each symbol is called a "punctuation mark".
These are some common punctuation marks used in English:
• . is a period or full stop.
• , is a comma.
• ? is a question mark or query.
• ! is an exclamation mark.
• ' is an apostrophe.
• " is a quotation mark.
• : is a colon.
• ; is a semicolon.
• ... is an ellipsis.
• - is a hyphen.
In written English, punctuation is vital to disambiguate the meaning of sentences. For example, "woman, without her man, is nothing" and "woman: without her, man is nothing" have greatly different meanings, as do "eats shoots and leaves" and "eats, shoots and leaves". "King Charles walked and talked half an hour after his head was cut off" is alarming; "King Charles walked and talked; half an hour after, his head was cut off", less so. (For English usage, see the articles on specific punctuation marks.)
The rules of punctuation vary with language, location, register and time and are constantly evolving. Certain aspects of punctuation are stylistic and are thus the author's (or editor's) choice. Tachygraphic language forms, such as those used in online chat and text messages, may have wildly different rules.
Reference
1 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing
2http://eslus.com/LESSONS/GRAMMAR/POS/pos1-8.htm
3http://sparkcharts.sparknotes.com/writing/englishgrammar/section1.php
4http://www.myenglishteacher.net/linkingwordsandpronouns.html
5http://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations/AAI9920593/
6http://www.criticalreading.com/sentence_predicate_modifiers.htm
7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punctuation
8http://www.englishclub.com/writing/punctuation.htm
Sabtu, 11 Desember 2010
Minggu, 21 November 2010
Faktor-faktor Entrepreneur sukses
01. Berbakat jadi wirausaha
02. Menjiwai dan memiliki jiwa kepemimpinan (strong leadership).
03. Proaktif memiliki kreatifitas tinggi sehingga banyak ide-ide baru.
04. Berjiwa spekulatif dan berwawasan luas tentang peluang usaha di masa yang akan datang.
05. Kuat mental dan tidak gampang putus asa dalam menghadapi perubahan-perubahan lokal maupun global.
06. Dapat membangun dan menciptakan networking yang dapat mendukung usahanya baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung dan dapat membina good relationship dengan konsumen
7. Siap menghadapi Kompetisi dalam menghadapi persaingan baik dari dalam maupun dari luar.
08. Segala sesuatu harus dengan perencanaan yang matang dan tidak berjiwa konsumtif.
ORANG YANG INGIN SUKSES BERANI MENGHADAPI TANTANGAN JADILAH PEMBERANI, SUKSES PASTI MILIK ANDA, KALAHKAN RASA TAKUT!!!
02. Menjiwai dan memiliki jiwa kepemimpinan (strong leadership).
03. Proaktif memiliki kreatifitas tinggi sehingga banyak ide-ide baru.
04. Berjiwa spekulatif dan berwawasan luas tentang peluang usaha di masa yang akan datang.
05. Kuat mental dan tidak gampang putus asa dalam menghadapi perubahan-perubahan lokal maupun global.
06. Dapat membangun dan menciptakan networking yang dapat mendukung usahanya baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung dan dapat membina good relationship dengan konsumen
7. Siap menghadapi Kompetisi dalam menghadapi persaingan baik dari dalam maupun dari luar.
08. Segala sesuatu harus dengan perencanaan yang matang dan tidak berjiwa konsumtif.
ORANG YANG INGIN SUKSES BERANI MENGHADAPI TANTANGAN JADILAH PEMBERANI, SUKSES PASTI MILIK ANDA, KALAHKAN RASA TAKUT!!!
Petunjuk Hidup Tentram dan bahagia 01. Jangan meniru orang lain jadi diri sendiri (be yourself).02. Tampakalah empat kebiasaan ini; pertama, singkirkan kertas yang sedang dikerjakan dimeja anda. KEDUA, kerjakan hal-hal menurut kepentinganny. KETIGA, dalam menghadapi masalah putuskanlah dengan segala berdasarkan fakta yang diperlukan untuk memutuskannya. KEEMPAT, belajrlah belajarlah mengorganisasi mewakilkan03. Bersikaplah rileks, jangan tegang dalam bekerja04. Syukurilah anugrah yang kau terima.05. Belajarlah dengan antusias06. Ingatlah bahwa kritik yang tidak adil sering merupakan pujian yang tersembunyi.07. Bertindaklah dengan segenap kemampuanmu.
Thanks, smogabermanfaat bagi teman-teman semuanya.
Petunjuk Memperoleh kawan
01. Jangan mengkritik, mempersalahkan dan mempengaruhi orang.
02. Berikan pujian yang tulus dan jujur.
03. Timbulkan keinginan yang menggebu pada orang lain.
04. Berminatlah sungguh kepada orang lain.
05. Buatlah orang lain merasa penting.
06. Hormatilah pendapat orang lain.
07. Mulailah akrab bersahabat.
08. Buatlah orang lain langsung berkata "ya"
09. Biarkanlah orang lain merasa dialah yang memiliki gagasan.
10. Sentuhlah motif-motif yang luhur.
11. Ajaklah orang lain menyadari kesalahannya secara tidak langsung.
12. Perhatikanlah kesalahan anda terlebih dahulu.
Demikan trik yang bisa saya sampaikan kepada teman-teman semuanya semoga bermanfaat dan mempunyai banyak teman, satu teman tidak cukup tapi satu musuh bagaikan seribu musuh.
02. Berikan pujian yang tulus dan jujur.
03. Timbulkan keinginan yang menggebu pada orang lain.
04. Berminatlah sungguh kepada orang lain.
05. Buatlah orang lain merasa penting.
06. Hormatilah pendapat orang lain.
07. Mulailah akrab bersahabat.
08. Buatlah orang lain langsung berkata "ya"
09. Biarkanlah orang lain merasa dialah yang memiliki gagasan.
10. Sentuhlah motif-motif yang luhur.
11. Ajaklah orang lain menyadari kesalahannya secara tidak langsung.
12. Perhatikanlah kesalahan anda terlebih dahulu.
Demikan trik yang bisa saya sampaikan kepada teman-teman semuanya semoga bermanfaat dan mempunyai banyak teman, satu teman tidak cukup tapi satu musuh bagaikan seribu musuh.
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